Co-unter-op Design

Last year I wrote an article series on co-op mechanics and design detailing the different kinds of design decisions one can implement into a game that shape how players work together cooperatively. Recently I covered gamplay dynamics or the factors at the root of emergence. One such dynamic is the human dynamic, which mainly applies to multiplayer and co-op games. Combine these two concepts and we get closer to a part of gameplay and game design that we all greatly respect, yet fail to understand and articulate clearly. That concept is player choice.

Concepts like player choice, winning, and losing are only possible when there's a degree of freedom for the player. Because the player has some level of control, for every interactive opportunity there are divergent and possibly emergent outcomes. Some choices bring you closer to winning. Others closer to losing. And others for no purpose other than player expression. Needless to say, freedom is important in making player choice substantive.

Before I tackle player choice in more detail, I wanted to talk about a key element of co-op design. In the same way that the freedom to lose makes winning more significant, having the freedom to work against a group in a co-op situation makes successful cooperation more meaningful. This is the basic concept behind co-utner-op design; elements of design in a co-op game that shape how a player can work against the group.

The term is a combination co-op and counter-op, two modes in the N64 FPS Perfect Dark. In the co-op missions, players can work together or not. Because the mission objectives are the key to winning, if one player sabotages the mission, both lose. Likewise, counter-op is a mode where one player plays the main character and the other takes control of an NPC to counter the main character. When the counter player dies, they take control of another NPC. In this counter-op mode, it is possible for the counter operative player to help the main player by killing other NPCs or by not fighting back. In both modes, the player choices can determine if the gameplay will be cooperative (towards a single goal) or not.

In the same way that we have co-op mechanics and level design, we also have co-unter-op design.

Now for some examples. 

• Bad Buddy Code (DK Country): Normally, when playing co-op one player controls DK and the other controls Diddy. With the touch of a button, the active player can switch control over to the passive player. With the Bad Buddy Code, the passive player can take control from the active player at any time. This mechanic can easily create a struggle for power. And if one player is feeling particularly crass, he/she can run head long into danger and switch just before being hurt thus killing the partner before they have a chance to defend themselves.
  • If one player gets hurt, the other player can skip picking up the barrel with their partner trapped inside.
• GRAB and BACKHAND (LBP): In LBP one Sackperson can GRAB onto another Sack person. Holding on makes the 2 Sackperson unit heavier and less maneuverable. This mechanic can give player the ability to pull friends up over ledges or out of danger. GRAB can also be used to drag players to their doom. To shake a GRAB, you can BACKHAND the GRABbing player. Interestingly, you can BACKHAND Sackpeople at any time. Knocking players into pits or other hazards can quickly turn a cooperating party into a vindictive brawl. 
• Team Attack/Friendly Fire (Smash Brothers, Halo 3, Left4Dead): This one is pretty self explanatory. When playing on a team your attacks affect allies and enemies alike. I've heard stories of L4D players going rogue at the end of a game by killing all of their teammates. And I've booted my fair share of betrayers in Halo3. 
• Horseplay (Zelda: Four Swords): Like friendly fire, the attacks in Four Swords affect teammates. The main difference is, aside from the bombs, the attacks don't do any damage to players. In other words, you can still be stunned and knocked around, but you can't be hurt directly. Like the GRAB in LBP, you can pick up other players and throw them into hazards. All of this is not to mention simply not cooperating when all 4 players must work together. 
• Give Me Some Pikmin (Pikmin 2 challenge mode): In challenge mode players can work together by taking control of two characters at once. Because players share the same Pikmin, it's possible for one player to take all of the Pikmin preventing the other player from doing anything useful. The selfish player may not be able to use the Pikmin without the other player standing by ready to scoop up some, but it's the uncooperative thought that counts. 
• Don't eat up the all the lives (Halo ODST: fire fight, Bionic Commando Rearmed, LBP): Some cooperative games give players a shared pool of lives to work with. Every time a player dies, everyone losses a little. This naturally puts pressure on the weakest link of the group. If someone was so inclined, they could kill off all the lives left in the pool. Doing this is more like stabbing your teammates in the back rather than expressing your desire not to cooperate. 
• Shared fate! (Gears of War sections, Neo*RPG, Halo ODST legendary campaign): Like the previously described co-ounter-op design element, if one person dies all of the remaining players are forced to reset the challenge to the last level or checkpoint. Also, for Gears and Halo, if one player pushes ahead and reaches a checkpoint, the other player is abruptly teleported along to catch him/her up. 
• The chore of the Chalice (FF:CC): In this game, a caustic mist fills the world. To survive the denizens keep the mist back with magical crystals. In the multiplayer game, players just carry around a portable crystal chalice to keep from dying. Normally, players put down the chalice to do battle. However, if one player decides to pick up the chalice and run for it, the others will undoubtedly suffer.
• Don't Touch That! (Bangai-O Spirits, Sonic 2/3/& Knuckles): Sometimes there are player activated switches that when triggered too early, failure ensues. When playing cooperatively as Tails, there are sections in various Sonic games that can delay and possibly endanger Sonic by triggering events too soon. It's the same in multiplayer Bangai-O Spirits.

Including the right amount of co-op design to co-unter-op design is a balancing act. In a few days, I'll get my hands on New Super Mario Bros. Wii. This game will probably teach us all valuable lessons about co-op game design like The Legend of Zelda: Four Swords did. Expect more articles.

Until then, be a team player.

Locks, Keys, & Obstacles pt.2

Like the Mario platforming games, the The Legend of Zelda series is are outstanding. One distinguishing feature of any Zelda game is the dungeons, which are essentially a series of locked rooms and keys.

For this article, I'll catalogue all of the locks & keys in the Temple of Time from The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess. Using the walkthrough videos created by NextGenWalkthroughs, you can see every challenge and puzzle solved. I cover the entire Temple minus the mini boss and final boss.

*SPOILER WARNING*

• 1:16 Organic Lock = pressure switch. Organic Key = Link's weight, Pot's weight, Small Statue's weight.
• 2:05 And-lock = both torches must be lit. Powerup Key = Lantern
• 2:20 Linear lock = chained door. Abstract Key = small key
• 2:55 Organic lock = pressure switch. Organic Key = Pot's weight, Small Statue's weight
  • This pressure switch puzzle is multilayered. The one lock controls multiple gates and players must figure out how to destroy the weight on the switch from a distance to progress.
• 4:05 Linear lock = hidden chest. Core Mechanics Key = kill all enemies.
• 4:45 And-lock = 2 pressure switches. Organic key = Link's weight, Pot's weight, Small Statue's weight.

• 1:28 Linear Lock = large gap. Organic Key = spinner.
• 2:42 And-lock = 2 pressure switches. Organic Keys = small statues.
  
  • The 3rd and-lock in the game the 2nd of which using 2 pressure switches. This time the necessary weights are placed in different areas on different floors. In this puzzle, players learn that the elevator can transport more than just link.
• 3:45 Linear lock = barred door & hidden chest. Core Mechanics Key = kill all enemies. 
• 4:48 Linear Lock = chained door. Abstract Key = small key.
  • This is the first lock & key in the Temple that connects two separate rooms. This puzzle helps the player develop a strong sense of space for the central elevator room.

• 0:23 Organic Lock = moving walls. Organic Key = crystal switch. Pins = Shooting arrows.
  
  • Because the crystal switch is positioned near the ground, players can hit the switch using a variety of weapons.
• 1:28 Organic Lock = moving walls. Organic Key = crystal switch. Pins = Shooting arrows.
  
  • This variation on the crystal switch puzzle positions the switch high off the ground. Instead of simply using a "peek hole" to shoot arrows through, the player must maneuver through the 3D environment to get a clear view of the switch.
• 4:20 Linear Lock = hidden chest. Core Mechanics Key = kill all enemies. 
  • Players have to fight more enemies than they had for previous "kill all enemies" challenges. The reward is just some Rupees.
• 4:55 Organic Lock = golden scales. Organic Key = weighted objects (Link & small statues).
  • his puzzle may seem too simple, but it is revisited later.

• 1:16 Organic Lock = pressure switch. Organic Key = weighted objects (Link, pot, small statue).
• 1:50 Linear Lock = hidden chest. Core Mechanics Key = kill all enemies. 
  
  • More Rupees for killing spiders.
• 2:25 Linear Lock = gate. Core Mechanics Key = kill all enemies. 

• 0:45 Linear Lock = bell warp. Organic/Powerup Key = controlling the large statue. 
  • Large Statue Lesson 1: Moving. This puzzle gives the player a chance to get used to moving the statue and Link simultaneously. 
• 1:15 Linear Lock = breakable gate. Organic/Powerup Key = controlling the large statue.
  
  • Large Statue Lesson 2: Smashing. There are some structures that only the large statue can destroy. 
• 1:50 Organic Lock = pressure switch. Organic Key = weighted object (pots, Link, large statue).
  • Large Statue Lesson 3: Strategically Deactivating. Sometimes you have to stop controlling the large statue to get the job done. 
  • This puzzle is a variation on the pressure switch puzzle detailed above where players had to destroy a pot from a distance in order to be in the right place to progress. This time the player has 2 bodies; the large statue and Link. Two bodies allows for the player to be in 2 places at once and thus complete this puzzle in a new way. 
• 3:00 Organic Lock = pressure switch. Organic Key = weighted object (Link, small statue).
  
  • Large Statue Lesson 4: Look around for small statues that can help.
  • This extension of the previous puzzle hides the switch and the organic key (the small statue).To access the switch, the enemy tower must be smashed (lesson 2). To get the small statue down from the pillar players can use the Dominion Rod (lesson 4).

• 0:25 Organic Lock = golden scales. Organic Key = weighted object (Link, small statues, large statue). 
  • This puzzle is the best example of folded level design in the Temple. The previous rooms in the Temple feature an added dynamic because of the large statue, but they were also designed with two largely separate functions. 1) Link's progression upward. 2) The large statue's progression downward to the warp bells. On the downward progression with the large statue players must use switches and parts of the room that were previously unused. Conversly, the golden scales puzzle is the same puzzle going up as it is coming down. The new dynamic of getting the large statue across is the new challenge. 

• 0:12 And-lock = 4 pressure switches. Organic Keys = weighted objects (small statues, Link, metal shells).
  • The challenge of this puzzle is created by the limited small statues available for weights. Also by separating the switch area from the battle areas where the metal shells are located the solution is less obvious. 
• 3:05 Linear Lock = pressure switch. Organic Keys = weighted objects (small statues, pots, large statue, link).
  
  • Large Statue Lesson 5: Even if Link and the target is separated by walls, you can still control the large statue.
• 5:36 Or-lock = moving walls. Organic Key = crystal switch/smashing through the walls. Pins = Shooting arrows.
  • Because you can smash through the walls with the large statue, there are two ways to progress.

• 2:15 Linear Lock = force field. Core Mechanics Key = kill all enemies.
• 3:15 Linear Lock = Destructible gate. Powerup Key = large statue attack.

• 0:13 And-lock = pressure switches. Organic Key = weighted objects (small statues). 
  
  • Applying what was learned previously (Lesson 4 & 5), this clever puzzle requires players to control small statues along areas the player cannot access. Also, the player must manipulate nearby small statues by picking one up, throwing it, and using the Dominion Rod.
• 3:35 Linear Lock = large statue switch. Organic Key = large statue.
• 4:40 Linear Lock = pressure switch. Organic key = weighted objects (small statue).
  • This puzzle is a variation of one from early on in the Temple. Instead of putting a pot on the switch and breaking it with an arrow/hookshot, players can only put a small statue on the switch and then move it off with the Domion Rod.

In the end, this one Temple in just one Zelda game features every kind of lock and key that we've covered (the large statue can be considered a reusable and versatile key). Going over all of these puzzles should give you a clearer idea of how much work goes into a Zelda dungeon. Keep in mind that the player is guided to complete each dungeon without going through any inorganic tutorial sequences. By balancing the types and amounts of puzzles with just the right amount of clues and freedom, the player can very effectively learn by doing.

This is just one of the keys to Zelda's success. 

Locks, Keys, & Obstacles pt.1

part.1  part.2

Video games are built upon the foundation of interactivity and challenges. The game throws a number of challenges in your way somewhere between the start of the game and the end, and you're expected to be able to overcome most if not all of the challenges. For games that are very linear, to progress to the next level one must get to the end of the current one. In this way, each level functions as an obstacle that's like a lock. And the key to this lock is a combination of basic player mechanics and player skill. They key is execution. The key is the journey. 

For more open games that don't have a simple level progression structure, keys and locks are put to use. Locks temporarily prevent you from accessing and area. Once you get the key, then you can continue. When used poorly, locks & keys can "artificially" extend the play time of a game by forcing the player to "jump through hoops." When used well, locks help create challenges that shape a rich journey. Before we continue, we need definitions. 

Obstacle: A general term for any challenge in a game that the player can only overcome by using mechanics.

Lock: Any object/system that restricts player progression or prevents access to an object/area. All locks must be able to be opened with a key. Locks can be in a locked, temporarily unlocked, or permanently unlocked state. 

Key: Any object or system that can be used to open a lock. 

Pin: Any procedure or steps involved in using a key to open a lock. 

Let's consider the different types of locks. Locks come in all shapes and sizes from gates, to portals, to NPC that just won't let you pass. In fact, a ledge that's just out of reach can be a lock preventing you from accessing a higher area. In this case, as long as you can eventually reach that higher area by, let's say, stepping on a switch (the key), then the ledge can be considered a lock. 

LOCKS

Let's go over the different types of locks: 

• Strict/Linear Lock: These locks are hard coded to only open after a single key is used in a specific way. Just try getting into the key hole in Super Mario World without the Key. 
• Organic lock: These locks are much more lenient than strict locks. Organic locks are created out of game rules and game dynamics. Because dynamics foster emergence, multiple solutions are also probable. For example, if you need a certain amount of weight on a switch to unlock a gate, for an organic lock it's possible to use a variety of game objects as a weight. In LittleBigPlanet, all the objects in a level have weight and physicality to them. To weigh down a switch you can jump on it, get you and 3 of your friends to stand on the switch, drag an object over to the switch, push down on the switch using a jetpack, or even flip the switch upside down so it weighs down on itself. 
• Or-locks: A lock that can be opened with any key of a specific type or a range of types. The locked doors in many Zelda dungeons are or locks. This means you can use any small key you find to open any of these locked doors.  
• And-lock: Some locks require multiple keys to open. If the player doesn't have all the pieces, nothing happens. If you've ever collected 3 pendants, 7 crystals, or any other number of special items to progress in a game, you've experienced an and-lock. 

KEYS

Locks are just half of the equation. Keys are the more interesting and versatile part of the set.

• Abstract key: These keys are usually an item that merely takes up a space in your inventory. The game tells you that you picked up a key, and afterwards certain lock will be opened for you. You can't do anything else with the key outside of picking it up and opening a lock. Abstract keys are also found in situations when players have to do a specific action before they can progress to the next scene. 
• Reusable keys: These keys aren't consumed when used for the first time. Some keys have limited use. Some can be reused over and over. 
• Versatile key: Some keys can actually open multiple locks. For these keys, it makes a big difference whether or not the key is reusable. If not, the player may be faced with a difficult choice; to open door number 1 or door number 2. 
• Core Mechanic key: For these locks, the player's core mechanics are the keys. Just JUMP, GRAB, SHOOT, PUNCH, etc in the right place, with the right timing, and/or in the right way and you're in.
• Upgrade/Powerup key: Like core mechanic keys, some locks are opened with optional or upgraded abilities. Examples include using super bombs to access new areas (Super Metroid), hookshotting to new spots (Zelda), and the tiny warp pipes in New Super Mario Brothers. The first time you run into these locks, you may or may not have the mechanics necessary to progress. 
• Organic/Dynamic key: The opposite of abstract keys, these keys are an organic part of the game world. Depending on what dynamics a game is designed with, organic keys play by the same rules. The keys in Super Mario World, some in LittleBigPlanet, and many of the keys in The Legend of Zelda:Phantom Hourglass are organic keys. This means to get them from one place to another, they can't simply be stashed away in an item menu. They must be pushed, picked up, or otherwise moved from point A to point B. Organic keys can turn a basic fetch quest into a dynamic challenge. From simple level design to the much more advanced folded level design. 

Overcoming locked obstacles can easily take up the majority of a game like The Legend of Zelda. A dungeon is essentially a series of locked rooms. Some locks are opened with little silver keys. Others by hitting switches with special weapons. And others still by killing enemies. The Zelda series provides prime examples of how to integrate lock & key design into the core dynamics and gameplay.

In the next article, I'll go over several examples of locks & keys from The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess. Believe me. Locks are the key to understanding Zelda's dungeon design.